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Introduction

Of Study is one of Baccons immortal works, and most Chinese get to know the essay by reading Chinese versions. Since there are many different translated versions, it is necessary to make comparisons between them. Actually a lot of scholars have already made explorations in the field. Howevermost of those comparisons either gave highly praise to one translators version but badly depreciated another ones or only compared versions on certain respect (Wang Yonghong 2002Jin 2005Wang Zhuling 2003). As is known, each version has its merits and demerits, so what we should do is to take up the merits while to discard the demerits.

In this situation, this paper intends to make a comparison on the three well- received versions of Of Study under the guidance of the functional equivalence theory so as to give readers a comprehensive view of the three versions on meaning, style and aesthetic value. In doing so, the readers might have a deep understanding of the essence of the original text, and at the same time, some valuable suggestions might be made to help future translation practice.

This paper consists of three chapters. In chapter one, the paper gives a short summary to Nidas functional equivalence theory. In chapter two, the author intends to give the readers a general impression of the original text and the features of the three different versions. In chapter three, the author conducts a comparison between the three Chinese versions on meaning equivalence, style equivalence and esthetics equivalence. 



Chapter I

A Brief Summary to Nidas Functional Equivalence Theory

As far as translation is concernedtheory and practice are complementary. Different translation theories are derived from practice and in return play a great role in guiding translation practice. However, translation theories cannot work miracles, and what translation theories do is to offer a framework and some general guidelines for translation and for evaluation of a piece of translated works as well as for assistance to individual translators by pointing out common translation problems and preventing them from repeating unnecessary mistakes. Undoubtedly, translation theories can also be applied to the analysis of translated works.

1.1 A Short Summary to Nidas Equivalence Theory 

    Since Chinese and English belong to totally different language systems, it is hard to find completely identical words or structures when doing translation between English and Chinese. Nidas functional equivalence theory might be of great help in this regard.

Functional equivalence actually comes from the concept of dynamic equivalence and later is replaced by functional equivalence to emphasize the concept of function and to avoid misunderstanding of the term dynamic. It is stated as followings, Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (qtd.in Jia 58).

Actually Nida defines functional equivalence from the target language readers part. That is to say translators should focus on the response of the receptor to achieve the state where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (qtd.in Munday 42). And, obviously, in Nidas eyes the translated works is supposed to be the substitution of the original because only in this way can the target language readers have the same experience as the source language readers do.

By now, we can see that, to some extent, Nidas functional equivalence shares some similarity with the Chinese classic translation principle——faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. However, the three-character classical translation principle can hardly all be attained in a translation. In this point, Nida gives his resolution that correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style if equivalence to be effect (qtd.in Munday 42). We can see that functional equivalence theory is a practicable theory which can be safely applied to practice.

1.2 Nidas Three-Stage System of Translation

In Nidas opinion, translation is composed of three basic steps in succession: 1. Analysis of the source language. 2. Transference from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL). 3. Restructuring the treated message in TL (qtd. in Munday 40). 

The analysis of the source language means the detailed treatment of the content and the structures. A complete understanding and sufficient appreciation of the original text is fundamental to have any ideal translations and adequate comparisons. As will be pointed out in the succeeding examples of chapter three, language of the original of Of Study belongs to old English, so that this process is crucial for an accurate version. It can never be over-stressed.

Transference is the stage in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of translator from language A to language B (qtd.in Hatim 23). Transference is closely related to reconstruction. These two steps can rarely be separated from each other. Otherwise, the translated version will suffer unintelligibility.

The third and final stage of the process of translation is restructuring the transferred material. And the most important aim of the restructuring process is to ensure the effect that the impact which the translation is to have on its intended receptors is what the source-text language producer has intended (qtd.in Hatim 24). This process embodies the essence of the functional equivalence theory, because it is only when the translation produces in the receiver a response which is essentially the same as that of the original audience that the translation can be considered dynamically equivalence to its source-text (Hatim 24).

The three-stage systems of translation is a great guidance to translation work, meanwhile, it is also a golden guide that should be followed when we do comparisons of translated works. Only after having a full understanding of this three-stage process can a good comparison be done.

1.3 Functional Equivalence and Literary Translation 

Literary translation differs a lot from other text translation for literary works depends on languages more to express its literary traits. Therefore, when doing literary translations, translators should pay more attention to its implied meanings beyond the language. That is to say, the more literary a source text is, the more difficult it is to be translated. Meanwhile literature is a kind of art or the art of language, to be specific. In this sense, literary translations should also reflect the originals artistic value. When doing literary translation, a translator should not only be obliged to express the same meaning as SL intended to express and correctly convey the right style but should also give TL readers a aesthetic enjoyment as SL readers do. In a word, literary translation involves not merely the logical problems, but also the aesthetic problems related to its expressions.

Since every literary translation has its own artistic value, a translator should do his best to explore the social life and culture background reflected in the original and make full use of his accumulated languages such as historical knowledge, aesthetic judgment, logical judgment and language skills etc. to reproduce the artistic conception of the original in the receptor language. Only in this way can the artistic value of the original be reproduced in a translated text.

Just as Nida said what the translators should do is to achieve the state where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (qtd.in Munday 42). So in a literary translation aesthetic equivalence shares the same importance as meaning equivalence and style equivalence.

Nidas definition of functional equivalence, which lays a great emphasis on narrowing the gap between the author and the target language readers in the evaluation of the quality of translated works, is of particular significance in the translation of literary works.

Nowadays, when we are exposed to more and more cross-culture communication between different countries, Nidas insight into this concept provides the Chinese translators with a significant tool to make the passage across cultures in their renditions of a literary source text in the service of the comprehension and appreciation of the receptor. It is on the basis of the functional equivalence that the three versions will now be assessed.









Chapter II

On Of Study and Its Three Chinese Versions

2.1 A General Introduction of Of Study

Its said that essay is the best literary form which can illustrate Englishs nation temperament and characteristics. From an essay readers can fully get knowledge of the authors life experience, wisdom and human nature. And when we refer to English essays we cannot miss Of Study.

Of Study does not only uncover the essence of study but also reveal the authors deep thought. Reading the essay, we can get at least five points, which may give us a great help on the road of study.

Firstly, Baccon shows us three functions of study, that is, for delight, for ornament, and for ability. For delight makes people not to lose the fun of life even in privateness and retiring. For ornament makes people good at debating and stating and for ability makes people engage in making progress in abilities.

Secondly, Baccon tells us something about how to study——there are both good books and bad ones so we must treat them respectively: some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Thirdly, Baccon thinks that study can reflect a persons taste: craftsman contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them (ibid.).

Fourthly, Baccon considers that study can make up deficiency: history make men wise; poet witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend (ibid.).

In addition, a person can only live in his own times, so there are inevitable gaps between books and the reality. In this case the author reminds us that Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider (ibid.). In short the article is concise and sharp which is deserve to be chewed and digested.

2.2 The General Features of the Three Chinese Versions 

There are many different Chinese versions of Of Study, of which Wang Zuoliangs, Hexins and Cao Mingluns versions represent three top accomplishments. Each of the three Chinese versions has been well received for their unique merits. Though readers opinions towards the features of each version may be not completely the same, they can not be different too much since the features are relatively fixed. An analysis of the respective versions feature helps us have a better understanding of the versions.

  When most readers read the original text of Of Study they may find that there are two seemingly contradictive styles: sometimes simple and concise (especially in the syntax), and sometimes somewhat complicated (in concise terms of diction).And no matter what style it is, the essay is always clear and precise.

Among the present translations of Bacons Of Study, Wang Zuoliangs is widely considered to be a marvelous model of stylistic equivalence. His translation enjoys an enduring fame for its remarkable features: skillful use of classical Chinese, the flexibility of dealing with sentence order and its consistency of style.

Hexins version is well received after its birth in the 1980s. We can say He deserves the reputation because his version is also a great one. The most obvious characteristic of Hexins version is concise and easily-understood. He translated the original in a new way that is not to be trapped by the old shackles (in some sense, the original forms) but to reproduce the essence of Of Study in a narrative way. So when reading Hes version, readers have a feeling that as if they are listening to an experienced man narrates his deep-hearted feeling. Hexin used many colloquial words and sentences in his versions so that readers will not feel strange when reading his version.

Caos version is the most loved version in the latest ones. To some extent, Cao Mingluns translation share some likeness with Wang Zuoliangs that is to translate the original into a semi-classical Chinese. At the same time Cao Minglun has done his best job to stick to the original, both in meaning and style. Cao Minglun used many parallel sentences in his version which are not only faithful to the original but also can give readers an esthetics enjoyment.























Chapter III

Comparisons of the Three Chinese Versions

As literary translations, target texts are supposed to be equal to their original in content, style and aesthetic effect as was pointed out in chapter one. Based on Nidas theory of functional equivalence, this chapter will make a comparative study of the three Chinese versions in the following aspects: meaning, style and aesthetic effect.

3.1 On Meaning Equivalence

The function of language is to communicate meaning of various kinds. And when we analyze the meaning we should pay attention to both the referential of lexical units and the connotative meaning of lexical units.

The following is a comparison of how each version embodies the meaning equivalence.


Example 1: Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 读书足以怡情,足以傅彩,足以长才1

Hes version: 读书可以作为消遣,可以作为装饰,也可以增长才于。2

Caos version: 读书之用有三:一为怡神旷心,二为赠趣添雅,三为长才益智3


According to Oxford Advanced Learners English-Chinese Dictionary, delight here means to give sb. a lot of pleasure and enjoyment. Wang translated it into Chinese asand Cao converts it into怡神旷心we can see they are both proper and well expressed the original meaning .While消遣is questionable here because in Chinese,消遣means dispelling ones idleness with fun. It cannot be equal to delight. So Wangs and Caos versions are better in meaning equivalence. Thus, it seems that the choice of the words in the translation allows no ambiguitywhich otherwise may result in serious distortion of the original meaning.


Example 2: Crafty men condemn studies  (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 有一技之长者鄙读……4

Hes version: 狡诈者轻鄙学问……5

Caos version: 讲究实际者鄙薄读……6


Craft men means men of craft. In Baccons period it is equal to todays 有一技之长者 rather than 狡黠之流, in this point we can see Hexin misunderstood the original sentence badly. At the same time craft man is not equal to讲究实际者, for讲究实际者in English is expressed as practical men. Referring to the translation of the sentence of Crafty men condemn studies; we can regard Wangs version as the master version.


Example 3: Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 书有可浅尝者,有可吞食者,少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之,有只

需读其部分者,有只须 大体涉猎者,少数则须全读,读时须全神贯注,孜孜不

.7


Hes version: 书籍好比食品。有些只须浅尝,有些可以吞咽只有少数需要仔细咀

嚼,慢慢品味。所以,有的书只须知其中梗概,而对于少数好书则要通读,细读

反复的读。8

Caos version:有些书可浅尝辄止,有些书可囫囵吞枣,但有些书则须细细咀嚼,

慢慢消化;换言之,有些书只读其章节,有些书可大致浏览,有些书则须通篇细

读并认真领悟。9


In the original sentence, the English word digest, as defined in the Longman English-Chinese Dictionary of Contemporary English, means change (food) in the stomach and bowels so that it can be used by the body. The Chinese equivalent of the word is. In Hes version digest is incorrectly rendered into 品味which means taste for its flavor without properly conveying the conceptual meaning of the original. ThereforeWangs and Caos version gives a somewhat closer natural equivalent of the original.


Example 4: Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 读史使人明智,读诗使人灵秀,数学使人周密,科学使人深刻,……10

Hes version: 读史使人明智,读诗使人聪慧,学习数学使人精密,物理学使人深刻,

伦理学使人高尚,逻辑修辞使人善辩……11

Caos version: 读史使人明智 ,读诗使人灵透,数学使人精细,物理学使人深沉,

伦理学使人庄重,逻辑修辞学使人善辩……12


According to common sense, natural philosophy means自然科学 instead of 物理学, furthermore natural philosophy contends a broader area and it includes philosophy. Meanwhile, that物理学can make peopleis questionable in Caos version. So in this sense Wangs version seems more acceptable than Hes and Caos version.

3.2 On Style Equivalence

As is known, each author has his own writing style. Generally speaking, style refers to the artistic characteristic and individuality of a writer in his works. Thanks to each writers different social background, artistic appreciation and personalities, most writers are sure to possess conspicuous characteristics of their own. Therefore, the style of a writer is his literary works.

Strictly speaking, translations should be consistent in style with their original texts, since translated works is expected to be a substitution of the original. However, each translator also has his own expression style, so no translation is ever completely equivalence (Nida 87). In this situation we cannot ask translators versions a hundred percent equal to the original texts but translators should still do their best to translate as similarly as possible.

The most conspicuous feature of Bacons style is probably the frequent use of old English thanks to the special culture background.


Example 5: The chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgement and disposition of business (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 其怡情也,最见于独处幽居之时;其傅彩也,最见于高谈阔论之

;其长才也,最见于处世判事之际。13

Hes version: 孤独寂寞时,阅读可以消遣。高谈阔论时,知识可供装饰。处世行

事时,知识意味着才干。14

Cao's version: 怡神旷心醉见于蛰伏幽居,增趣添雅最见于高谈雄辩,而长才益

智最见于处事辩理。15


We can say all the above versions are adequate, but when style is also taken into consideration, Wangs and Caos versions overhead Hes. As is known, the original sentences belong to old English and they are shaped in parallelism forms. After comparing these three versions we can see that Wangs and Caos versions do not only stick to the forms well but also remain the sentences classical flavor by translating them into semi-classical Chinese, which He failed to do.

In this point we can examine more examples of the same kind to illustrate that sometimes semi-classical Chinese can transfer the authors style better:


Example 6: They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version:读书补天然之不足,经验又补读书之不足……16

Hes version:求知可以改进人性,而经验又可以改进知识本身……17

Cao's version:天资之改善须靠读书,而学识之完美须靠实践……18


Example 7: So if a mans wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again: if his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the schoolmen; for they are symini sectores. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing, to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyerss cases (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).


Wangs version: 如智力不集中,可令读数学,盖演题需全神贯注,稍有分散即须重演;如不能辩异,可令读经院哲学,盖是辈皆吹毛求疵之人;如不善求同,不善以一物阐证另一物,可令读律师之案卷。19

Hes version: 同样道理,一个思维不集中的人,他可以研习数学,因为数学稍不

仔细就会出错。缺乏分析判断力的人,他可以研习形而.上学,因为这门学问最

讲究细琐的辩证。不善于推理的人,可以研习法律案例。如此等等。20

Caos version: 以此相反,若有人难举神思,可令其演戏数学,因在演算求证中

稍一走神就得从来一遍;若有人不善辩异,可令其读经院哲学,因该派哲学家之

条分缕析可令人不胜其烦;而若有人不善由果溯因之归纳,或不善由因溯果之演

绎,则可令其阅读律师之卷。21


Compared to the original sentencesit is obvious that in the above two examples Caos versions do not only reproduces the style of the original but also represents the well-balanced sentence structure of the original by translating them into semi-classical Chinese.

From the above analysis, we know that style equivalence is also important because literary translation doesnt mean to retell the original stories but also to reproduce the authors style. A good translation should be faithful to the original text, so style, as an important part of the original text, cannot be neglected.

3.3 On Esthetics Equivalence

In this chapter, a comparison has been made between the three Chinese versions in terms of meaning and style. Nidas definition of functional equivalence insists on equivalence in content as well as in form. In generalmeaning is found in the contentand style in the form. A successful translation will have to attain the closest natural equivalence in both aspects.

As has been pointed in the chapter one that literary works is a kind of art, so it should reflect an aesthetic value. Whether a literary work is in possession of aesthetic value depends on its aesthetic elements, which can be divided into two kinds: the beauty in form and the beauty in content.

As has been mentioned in chapter one that a translation of a literary work should enable its readers to experience aesthetic enjoyment in the same way as the receptors of the original do. A successful translation, therefore, requires a translator to have a keen aesthetic judgment, and conveys the corresponding aesthetic effects in his version.

Beauty in form is perceptible. It involves the beauty at the phonemic levelat the lexical level and at the sentence level. The aesthetic features embodied in the sentence involve the rhythm of sentences and some rhetorical devices. Here the focus is on the latter.


Example 8:  for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 盖天生才干犹如自然花草,读书然后知如何修剪移接。22

Hes version: 人的天性犹如野生的花草,求知学习好比修剪移栽。23

Caos version: 因天生资质犹如自然花木,需要用学识对其加以修剪……24


Example 9: else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 否则书经提炼犹如水经蒸馏,淡而无味。25

Hes version: 否则一本书将像已被蒸馏过的水,变得淡而无味了。26

Caos version: 否则删减过的往往就像蒸馏水一样,淡而无味。27


As is known, simile makes a comparison between two or more unlike things and its normal signals are the particles like and as. Simile is also used for description or illumination and by way of kindling the imagination; it can throw light onto what would be otherwise be inconceivable for people. No wonder simile is generally considered one of the most effective figures in literary writings.

Many of the English similes have their Chinese equivalentsso their translation is usually done in a direct way. In the above three versionsto a great extent, these three translators are able to produce the aesthetic effect of the rhetoric device of the original work.


Example 10: Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 读书使人充实,讨论使人机智,笔记使人准确。28

Hes version: 读书使人充实,讨论使人机放,写作则能使人精确。29

Caos version: 读书可使人充实,讨论可使人敏锐,笔记则可使人严谨。30


Example 11: Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like (LiteraturePage.com ch. 50: 102).

Wangs version: 滚球利睾肾,射箭利胸肺,慢步利肠胃,骑术利头脑,诸如此类。31

Hes version: 例如打球有利于腰背,射箭可扩胸利肺,散步则有助于消化,骑术

使人反应敏捷,等等。32

Caos version: 如滚球有利于膀胱和肾脏,射箭有利于肺部和胸腔,散步有利于

肠胃,骑马有利于大脑等等。33


Strictly speakingparallelism is also a kind of repetition. But as an independent rhetoric deviceit does have its own distinct features, which are different from those of repetition. Parallelism is the repetition of the same or similar sentence structure or phrasal constructions instead of the lexical items. It is the method of expressing ideas of equal importance in the same grammatical form. The artistic function of this rhetorical device is to give emphasis, clarity and coherence to ideas. Both English and Chinese are rich in this device, so direct translation is valued.

In the example 10, all the three versions are able to properly reproduce the aesthetic effect of the original by translating the paralleled sentences. Referring to the example 11, personally speaking, maybe Hes version could be changed to be :例如打球有利于腰背,射箭有利于胸肺,散步有利于消化,骑术则有利于使人反应敏捷,等等, which would be somewhat better.




































Conclusion

Admittedly, translators competence of the two languages affects the versions greatly, but all the same excellent translation theory is a necessary guidance to great translation works. Nidas well-known theory ——functional equivalence theory is just such a great guidance. It does not only give a direction to translators work but also offers common readers a new criterion for the evaluation of translated works. According to this criteriona piece of translation is considered excellent only when it has proved itself to be the closest natural equivalent of the original both semantically and stylistically. That is to say, the translation should enable the target language readers not only to understand the content as clearly as the original readers does, but also to appreciate the same impact and appeal of the work as the original readers feel. In the light of this theory, this thesis has attempted to explore and evaluate three Chinese versions of Of Study from the point of view of meaning, style and aesthetic effect.

Due to the authors limited knowledge of functional equivalence and comparative study skill, there are much left to be discussed on the appreciation of both Baccons original text and the translated Chinese versions. Further studies are expected.









References

Bacon, Francis. Of Study.  Francis Bacon, Essays. Beijing: Foreign Languages Teaching and Research Press, 1998.

Hatim, Basil. Teaching and Researching Ttranslation. Beijing: Foreign Languages Teaching and Research Press, 2005.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies——Theories and Applications. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2006.

Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

. 谈读. 曹明. 《培根随笔集. 北京:人民文学出版, 2006.

. 论读. . 《培根论人生. 2. 北京:中国友谊出版公, 2001. 

. 论读. 王佐. 《英语辅导》2006 (12).

金春. Of Study 的文体赏. 齐齐哈尔大学学报》 2005 (5).

贾文. 《应用翻译功能论. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司2004.

王永. 《论读书》三种译文对比看王佐良译文的特. 武汉理工大学学报 2002 (5).

王筑. 从《论读书》译文谈翻译的修辞技. 《贵州教育学院学报 2003 (19). 







Acknowledgements

Through graduation paper writing I have learned lots of knowledge concerning my thesis. For the completion of my thesis, Im greatly indebted to my supervisor Chen Hong who has given me, while I am writing, constant help, detailed and valuable advice, and the benefit of her wide knowledge and discerning understanding of translation.

My sincere thanks also go to those teachers whose lectures have greatly enriched my knowledge and provided much enlightenment for my academic studies.

Finally, I should like to express my heart-felt gratitude to all the teachers in the College of Arts of Hebei University of Engineering and to all my classmates of English major.







[1]  Of Study translated by Wang Zuoliang from 《英语辅导2006 (12).

[2]  Of Study translated by He Xin from《培根论人生》. 2. : 中国友谊出版公, 2001.

[3]  Of Study translated by He Xin from 《培根随笔集. : 人民出版, 2006.

[4]  ibid.

[5]  ibid.

[6]  ibid.

[7]  ibid.

[8]  ibid.

[9]  ibid.

[10]  ibid.

[11]  ibid.

[12]  ibid.

[13]  ibid.

[14]  ibid.

[15]  ibid.

[16]  ibid.

[17]  ibid.

[18]  ibid.

[19]  ibid.

[20]  ibid.

[21]  ibid.

[22]  ibid.

[23]  ibid.

[24]  ibid.

[25]  ibid.

[26]  ibid.

[27]  ibid.

[28]  ibid.

[29]  ibid.

[30]  ibid.

[31]  ibid.

[32]  ibid.

[33]  ibid.

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